A time-line of the Holy Roman Empire

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(Copyright © 1999 Piero Scaruffi)

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350: the Roman empire allows the Franks to settle in Belgium
406: as Vandals invade Gaul, the Franks expand in southern Belgium
407: Gebicca becomes leader of the Burgundians
413: the Burgundians settle on the left bank of the Rhine as "foederati" with capital in Worms
435: the Burgundians led by Gundahar invade Belgium
436: the Romans and the Huns attack the Burgundians and kill Gundahar
443: the Romans settle the Burgundians in Savoy
447: Merovech (Meerwig) establishes the Merovingian dynasty among the Franks
457: the Burgundi seize Lyons
480: Frank king Childeric dies and the Frank capital is in Rheims
481: Clovis becomes king of the Franks
486: Franks led by Clovis I (Chlodovech) conquer northern Gaul from the Romans and drive the Visigoths into Spain
496: Clovis converts the Franks to catholicism
507: Clovis defeats the Visigoths, kills their king Alaric II, and takes their French lands, including Aquitaine
510: Clovis moves the Frankish capital to Paris
511: Clovis dies and his kingdom is divided among his four sons, thus creating the kingdoms of Austrasia (eastern France and southwestern Germany) and Neustria (Paris and northern France)
531: the Franks conquer the Thuringians
534: the Franks conquer the Burgundians
536: the Franks conquer Provence from the Ostrogoths
555: the Franks conquer the Bavarians
628: count Pepin I becomes the Austrasian "major domi" (mayor of the palace)
638: the Merovingian king Dagobert is the first king to be buried at the monastery of Saint-Denis, which then becomes the royal abbey church
687: Pepin's son Pepin II becomes the Austrasian mayor of the palace and conquers Neustria, reuniting the two kingdoms
712: a Berber army under Tariq ibn Ziyad conquers southern Spain from the Visigoths and Cordoba becomes the residence of the Arab governor
714: Pepin II dies and Pepin's son, Charles Martel, becomes mayor of the palace
718: Pelayo unites with the Visigothic leaders who have been defeated by Tariq, and creates the kingdom of Asturias in northwestern Spain, thus creating the kingdom of Leon
720: the Arabs capture Narbonne
725: the Arabs capture Carcassonne
732: the Muslim invasion of Europe is stopped by Charles Martel at the battle of Tours
737: the Arabs capture Provence
741: Charles Martel dies and his kingdom is divided between his sons Carloman (Austrasia) and Pippin (the rest), while Bavaria and Aquitaine are de facto independent
743: Pepin and Carloman elect Childeric III to king of the Franks
747: Carloman becomes a Montecassino monk and Pepin III becomes the sole ruler of the Franks
751: the Carolingian mayor Pepin III deposes Childeric III and appoints himself king of the Franks, thus ending the Merovingian dynasty and uniting Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy
752: the Franks under Pippin expel the Arabs from Provence
754: pope Stephen II anoints Pepin III king of the Franks
756: Pepin III defeats the Lombards and conquers Ravenna but leaves the conquered territories to the Pope, thereby founding the Papal State and establishing a temporal power for the Pope
768: Pepin III dies and Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks, with capital in Aachen
774: the Franks under Charlemagne annex the Lombards
777: Charlemagne builds a palace at Aix-la-Chapelle
778: Charlemagne attacks the Muslims and invades northeastern Spain, creating the Spanish March along the Pyrenees (Aragonia and Catalonia)
781: Charlemagne places his son Louis on the throne of Aquitaine
785: Charlemagne conquers the pagan Saxons in Germany
788: Charlemagne conquers Bavaria
796: Charlemagne conquers the Avars (Pannonia)
800: the Pope crowns Charles emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
801: Charlemagne's son Louis captures Barcelona from the Arabs
812: a peace treaty between Charlemagne and the Eastern Roman Empire surrenders Venezia to the Eastern empire but grants Venezia the right to trade with the Holy Roman Empire
814: Charlemagne dies and his only surviving son, Louis, becomes king of the Franks and holy Roman emperor
830: Louis is attacked by his sons, allied with pope Gregory IV: Lothar (king of most of France and northern Italy), Pepin (king of Aquitaine), Louis II (king of Bavaria)
840: the holy Roman emperor Louis I dies and civil war erupts among Lothar (the new emperor), Charles le Chauve (who succeeded his father Pepin) and Louis II
843: at the Treaty of Verdun the Holy Roman Empire is divided among Charles II le Chauve (western France), Lothair (Netherlands, eastern France, renamed Lotharingia/Lorraine, and northern Italy) and Louis/Ludwig II (western Germany)
855: Lothair dies and his kingdom is split between his sons (Lotharingia to Lothar II and Burgundy to Charles) while Louis II becomes emperor and inherits northern Italy
860: Semen Garcia unites the dukedoms of Pamplona and Navarra and gains independence from the Franks
875: Louis II dies and Charles II le Chauve invades Italy and becomes emperor
877: Charles II dies
879: south Burgundy becomes de facto independent
881: Charles III inherits most of Charlemagne's old empire
888: Charles III is deposed by the nobles and the Frankish Empire is divided between East (Germany and northern Italy), ruled by Arnulf, and West (France), ruled by Odo Capet
888: north Burgundy declares its independence
888: north Italy declares its independence under Berengar I
890: Barcelona's count Wilfrid the Hairy declares his independence from the Franks
898: Odo dies and a Carolingian is again elected to the throne, Charles le Simple
910: Garcia, king of Leon, expands the kingdom and builds castles along the upper rio Ebro, thus creating Castilla
911: the duchy of Normandy is established by the Carolingian king Charles III in order to settle the Vikings of Rollo
911: Ludwig das Kind, last of the Carolingian rulers in the East, dies and the stem dukes elect Konrad I, duke of Franconia
915: Berengar I dies and no emperor is appointed ("interregnum")
918: Konrad I dies and the stem dukes elect the Saxon duke Heinrich I, first of the Ottonen
922: the Viking ruler Dirk I founds the Egmont Benedictine monastery in Haarlem (Holland)
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930: Burgos' count Fernan Gonz lez secedes from Leon and gains independence for Castilla
933: south and north Burgundy are united in the kingdom of Burgundy
936: Otto I ascends to the throne of the East
954: Otto I crushes the invasion of the Magyars
961: the Pope asks Otto I for protection against Berengar II
962: Otto I invades Italy and is crowned emperor by the Pope in Rome
970: Sancho becomes king of Navarra
981: Castilla declares its independence from the Franks
983: Otto III ascends to the throne and, being a child, is tutored by French Benedectine monk Gerbert d'Aurillac
987: Hugh Capet is elected emperor of the West
996: the French king Hugh Capet dies and is succeeded by another Capet, Robert II the Pious
999: Otto III appoints Gerbert d'Aurillac pope (Sylvester II)
1000: Otto III absorbs Poland and Hungary within his sphere of control
1000: 7 million people live in France, 7 million in Iberia, 5 million in Italy, 4 million in Germany, 2 million in Britain
1001: Sancho unifies Castilla and Navarra
1004: Sancho, the ruler of Castilla, is made a king by the Holy Roman Emperor and founds the Sanchez dynasty
1018: Dirk III is appointed first count of Holland
1024: Konrad II becomes German emperor, thus establishing the Salian dynasty
1031: the French king Robert II the Pious dies and Henri I succeeds him
1035: Sancho of Castilla dies and is succeeded by Fernando I as king of Castilla, by Ramiro as king of Aragonia, by Garcia as king of Navarra, and by Gonzalo.
1037: Fernando I of Castilla conquers Leon
1039: German emperor Konrad II dies and his son Heinrich III becomes emperor of Germany
1039: under the protection of German emperor Heinrich III, Cluny's abbot Odilo turns his monastery into the head of a monastic feudal system whose influence spread all over Europe
1049: the Norman warlord Robert Guiscard conquers Puglia from Byzantium
1050: farmers in the Utrecht district (Holland) build dykes to gain land from the sea
1050: the catapult is re-discovered (the "Trebuchet catapult")
1056: Heinrich III dies and is succeeded by Heinrich IV
1066: William of Normandy defeats the English king Harold, ends the Anglo-Saxon rule of England and unites England and Normandy
1070: the Hospital of Saint John is founded in Jerusalem by Amalfi merchants
1071: Normans led by Robert Guiscard conquer southern Italy from Byzantium
1072: the Normans conquer Sicily, Calabria and Napoli, and establish a kingdom over southern Italy
1075: Pope Gregory VII demands that the German emperor Heinrich IV abandons the habit of "lay investiture" (the emperor appoints the bishops)
1076: Heinrich IV refuses and Gregory VII excommunicates and deposes him, but then forgives him at Canossa (abbot Hugh of Cluny acts as mediator)
1083: Alfonso VI of Castilla defeats the Arabs at Toledo
1085: Heinrich IV invades Italy and drives Pope Gregory VII out of Rome, and the Pope dies in exile
1091: the Normans defeat the Arabs and extend the Kingdom of Sicily over most of Italy
1093: Alfonso VI of Castilla appoints Henri of Burgundy count of Portugal
1095: Pope Urban II, responding to an appeal from the Byzantine emperor Alexios Komnenos, calls for a Crusade against the Muslims
1099: Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon capture Jerusalem
1106: Heinrich IV dies and is succeeded by Heinrich V
1112: Afonso Henriques inherits Portugal, a vassal state of Castilla
1113: the Pope recognizes the Hospital of Saint John as separate monastic order (the Hospitallers) with headquarters in Acre
1118: Arabs import gunpowder from China (a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur and charcoal) and arms and artillery are invented
1122: Pope Calixtus II and German emperor Heinrich V sign the Concordat of Worms that resolves the "investiture controversy" by granting the emperor veto power over the German Church
1125: Heinrich V dies, the power of the German empire dissolves and the German emperor becomes a figurehead
1137: France and Aquitaine are united after Eleanor of Aquitaine marries French king Louis VII
1137: Benedictine monk Suger builds the cathedral of Saint-Denis in a new style, the gothic style
1137: Aragonia and the Catalan counties are united by marriage under Barcelona's count Ramon Berenguer IV, who becomes king of Aragonia
1141: the philospher Pierre Abelard is condemned as heretic and is books are burned for his views on the Trinity and his love for Heloise
1143: Afonso Henriques is made king by the Pope and declares Portugal independent
1152: Friedrich I Hohenstaufen, "Barbarossa", is elected German emperor
1152: Eleanor of Aquitaine, wife of Henry of Anjou, protects troubadours and poets of amour courtois at her court
1156: Friedrich I "Barbarossa" rediscovers Justinian law, granting the emperor absolute powers
1158: Friedrich I "Barbarossa" issues a decree promoting universities independent of the political or clerical power ("Costitutio Habita")
1158: duke Heinrich the Lion of Saxony founds the cities of Munich and Luebeck
1158: German emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa elevates duke Vladislav II of Bohemia to king
1159: French theologian John of Salisbury publishes the "Policraticus", first doctrine of the separation of church and state but with the state subordinate to the church
1160: Alexander III excommunicates Friedrich I "Barbarossa"
1162: Friedrich I "Barbarossa" raids Rome and Milan
1163: Paris bishop Maurice de Sully begins work at the church of Notre Dame
1172: the Almohads conquer Andalucia from the Almoravids and move the capital to Sevilla
1176: the Italian communes defeat Friedrich Barbarossa at the battle of Legnano
1177: Barbarossa recognizes Alexander III as Pope and is forgiven
1180: Barbarossa invades Luebeck and deposes duke Heinrich the Lion
1189: the third Crusade is led by King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, king Philippe Auguste II of France, and emperor Frederick Barbarossa
1189: The Crusaders use the Trebuchet catapult
1190: Friedrich I Barbarossa dies and is succeeded by Heinrich VI as German emperor
1190: the Teutonic Knights are founded by German lords to fight in the crusade, establish their capital at Acre, and adopt the Templars' white mantle and the Hospitallers' rule
1194: the German emperor Heinrich VI conquers southern Italy and Sicily from the Normans, despite the pope's opposition
1195: Alfonso VIII of Castilla is defeated by the Almohads at Alarcos
1197: German emperor Heinrich VI dies and the electors prefer Otto IV over Heinrich's son Friedrich II
1203: Philippe Auguste II of France conquers Normandy and expels the English
1204: the Crusaders sack Constantinople and set up a Latin kingdom
1205: the lord of Amstel founds a castle (Amsterdam)
1208: pope Innocent III recognizes Friedrich II as legitimate ruler of Germany over emperor Otto IV
1212: the Christian kings of Iberia defeat the Almohads at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
1214: pope Innocent III, the claimant German emperor Friedrich II and French king Philippe Auguste defeat German emperor Otto IV and English king John at the battle of Bouvines
1215: Friedrich II ascends to the throne of Germany
1217: Emperor Friederich II grants lands to the Teutonic Knights in Sicily
1226: Emperor Friederich II grants the Teutonic Knights authority to restore order in Prussia
1226: Louis IX becomes king of France
1230: Castilla and Leon are united under Ferdinand III of Castilla
1230: German emperor Friederich II proclaims himself king of Jerusalem, having wed the heiress to that throne and negotiated a deal with the Arabs
1234: the last Sanchez dies and Navarra is inherited by the French noble Thibault de Champagne
1238: king Jaime of Aragonia conquers Valencia from the Muslims
1241: Hamburg and Luebeck sign a treaty of mutual defense (Hanseatic League)
1242: Pope Gregory IX excommunicates Friederich II
1245: the Synod of Lyons called by Innocent IV deposes Friederich II of Germany
1248: Castilla king Fernando III captures Sevilla from the Arabs
1249: the Mamlukes defeat the French in Egypt and capture the king of France
1250: German emperor Friederich II dies and is succeeded by his son Konrad IV
1252: Alfonso X becomes king of Castilla, moves the capital to Sevilla and turns the Alcazar into the Reales Alcazares
1254: German emperor Konrad IV dies
1254: Friedrich's illegitimate son Manfred seizes southern Italy
1252: Bruges joins the Hanseatic League
1257: German princes establish an electoral college to elect the Holy Roman Emperor
1264: Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX, defeats Manfred and is crowned king of Sicily, thus ending German rule, causing the decline of the German empire and asserting French supremacy over Europe
1270: Louis IX dies and is succeeded by Philippe III
1273: Rudolf I von Habsburg is elected German emperor after a long interregnum from the death of Friedrich II
1274: the Capetian kings promote French as the national language
1276: Felipe the Fair gains Navarra by marriage
1276: Pedro III becomes king of Aragonia
1282: a popular uprising in Sicily removes the Anjou and installs Aragonia king Pedro III as king of Sicily ("Sicilian Vespers"), who moves the capital to Napoli
1285: Aragonia king Pedro III dies and is succeeded in Aragonia by his son Alfonso III and in Sicily by his son Jaime II, despite opposition by the pope who recognizes the Anjou's claim on Sicily
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1285: Philippe IV of France reforms the government
1290: the Teutonic Knights conquer all of Prussia
1291: defeated by the Muslims at Acre, Hospitallers and Templars move their headquarters from Acre to Cyprus and Teutonic Knights move their headquarters from Acre to Venice
1291: the Swiss cantons form a confederation under a republican form of government ("League Of Upper Germany")
1291: Aragonia's king Alfonso III dies and his brother Jaime II becomes king of Aragonia
1291: three valleys in Central Switzerland unite against the counts of Habsburg
1303: the French king Philippe IV kidnaps pope Boniface VIII over the right to tax the French clergy
1306: Philippe IV expels the Jews from France
1309: French pope Clement V moves to Avignon
1309: the Hospitallers conquer the island of Rhodes and move their capital there, establishing an ecclesiastical principality under the eastern Roman empire
1309: the Teutonic Knights move their capital from Venice to Prussia and establishes a theocratic state
1312: the Hospitallers are awarded the Templars' possessions in western Europe, Cyprus, and Greece (kingdom of Achaia)
1314: Jacques de Molay, the grand master of the Templars, is burned at the stake in Paris
1327: German emperor Ludwig IV invades Italy and appoints pope John XXII
1328: Charles IV, the last Capetian king of France dies, his daughter Jeanne is disqualified from occupying the French throne, and Edward III of England claims the French throne, whereas the French nobility chooses Philippe of Valois, the first Valois king
1328: Navarra declares its independence from France
1337: Philippe VI of France and Edward III of England go to war over France ("Hundred Years' War")
1340: guns are fired from ships for the first time at the battle of Sluys
1343: the Hanseatic League is formalized in Cologne
1347: the plague ("Black Death"), carried by Genoese merchants from Crimea, spreads throughout Europe and kills 25 million people, one third of the European population
1353: the league of Switzerland is formed
1353: the German monk Berthold Schwarz invents the cannon, and the catapult becomes rapidly obsolete
1356: England captures the French king and one third of France at the battle of Poitiers
1356: German emperor Karl IV issues the "Golden Bull" to codify the election of German emperors by seven electors (the archbishops of Trier, Mainz and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the count Palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg)
1364: Charles V liberates France from England
1365: the university of Wien is founded in Austria
1369: Amsterdam joins the Hanseatic League
1370: the Hanseatic League defeats Waldemar IV of Denmark, thus gaining the monopoly of trade in Scandinavia
1385: the university of Heidelberg is founded in Germany
1391: the Jews of Iberia are forced to convert
1410: the Teutonic Knights are defeated by Jagiello's Polish-Lithuanian army at the battle of Tannenberg
1415: Henry V of England allies with Burgundy, defeats the French at the battle of Agincourt, takes prisoner the duke of Orleans and proceeds to reconquer Normandy from France
1415: prince Henrique the Navigator of Portugal seizes Ceuta from the Muslims
1420: England seizes northern France
1424: prince Henrique the Navigator of Portugal sends the first expedition to Africa
1429: the French army, led by Jeanne d'Arc, triumphs at Orleans against the English and their allies
1430: Portugal trades slaves within Africa
1431: the English burn Jeanne d'Arc at the stakes
1431: Henry VI of England is crowned king of France in Paris
1434: Portuguese explorer Gil Eanes reaches the Cape and explores the western coast of Africa on behalf of prince Henrique the Navigator of Portugal
1436: Afonso de Baldaya reaches Rio de Oro on behalf of prince Henrique the Navigator of Portugal
1441: the Hanseatic League is defeated by the Dutch
1444: the first public sale of African slaves by Europeans takes place at Lagos, Portugal
1453: France expels the English (end of the "Hundred Years' War")
1453: the Turks use a cannon built by Bombard that can hurl a 270 kg ball over 1.5 kms
1456: Gutenberg invents the printing press and prints the Bible
1460: Louis XI annexes Burgundy
1464: France establishes a postal system
1466: Kazimierz IV's Polish army defeats the Teutonic Knights and annexes western Prussia to Poland
1467: France establishes the postal system
1469: Aragonia and Castilla are united through the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragonia and Isabella of Castilla
1477: German king Maximilian I Habsburg inherits parts of Germany, Italy, Spain, Holland
1477: French king Louis XI and emperor Maximilian I defeat Burgundy and split the territory between them (battle of Nancy)
1482: Portugal founds the first European trading post in Africa (Elmina, Gold Coast)
1486: Bernardus de Breydenbach's "Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam" is the first "travel guide"
1487: Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope in Africa and thus proves that the Atlantic is connected to the Indian Ocean
1492: the Italian explorer Cristoforo Colombo lands in America on behalf of Spain, thinking he has reached Asia
1492: Jews and Muslims are expelled from Spain
1492: the Christian kingdoms reconquer all of Iberia
1492: Ferdinand the Catholic conquers Granada, the last Muslim state
1493: the first recorded case of syphilis in Europe (imported from America)
1494: Spanish king Felipe the Fair inherits the "Low Countries" (Holland) when Maximilian I is made Holy Roman Emperor
1494: Charles VIII of France invades Firenze, Rome, Napoli, but a league of Milan, Venezia, emperor Maximilian, pope Alexander VI and Ferdinando of Aragonia, led by Francesco Gonzaga, forces him to retreat
1494: Pope Alexander VI brokers an agreement dividing the Americas between Spain and Portugal ("Treaty of Tordesillas")
1495: Manuel I becomes king of Portugal
1496: Jews and Muslims are expelled from Portugal
1498: Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sails from Portugal to India
1498: CHarles VIII dies and Louis XII becomes king of France
1499: Switzerland gains independence from the German empire
1499: France invades Milano
1500: Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvares Cabral sails across the Atlantic Ocean and discovers Brazil
1501: the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci sails to Brazil on behalf of Portugal and realizes that he is exploring a new continent
1502: the first Portuguese colons settle in Brazil
1504: Spain wins the Italian war against France
1505: Francisco de Almeida sets up a trade outpost for Portugal in India
1509: the sultan of Egypt attacks the Portuguese navy in the Indian Ocean near Diu and is defeated, thus turning Portugal into the dominating power in India
1509: the Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus publishes "The Praise of Folie", which advocates a return to the moral values of early Christianity
1510: Portugal occupies Goa in India
1510: Peter Henlein of Nuremberg invents the pocket watch
1511: Portuguese captures Malacca in Malaysia, an outpost to trade spices with China
1512: Ferdinand the Catholic conquers most of Navarra
1513: Vasco Nunez de Balboa reaches the Pacific Ocean via the strait of Panama
1515: Francois I becomes king of France
1516: Ferdinando the Catholic dies and Carlos I, son of Felipe the Fair, of the Hapsburg family, born in the Flanders, inherits Spain (first ruler of a unified Spain), the "Low Countries", the American colonies and Napoli
1516: Italy is divided into two spheres of influence, French in the north and Spanish in the south ("Peace of Noyon")
1517: the Protestant Reformation begins at Wittenberg when Martin Luther publishes his "95 Theses" against the Catholic practice of selling indulgences
1519: Maximilian I dies and his grandson Carlos I of Spain inherits the Holy Roman Empire of Germany, changing name to Karl V, thhus unifying Spain and Austria
1521: Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes conquers the Aztec empire in Mexico
1521: Manuel I of Portugal dies, having extended Portugal's dominions over four continents
1521: the Ottomans capture Beograde
1521: war erupts between Francis I of France and Karl V of Germany (Carlos I of Spain)
1522: Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan's expedition circumnavigates the globe on behalf of Spain
1525: all residents of Spain are forced to convert to Catholicism
1525: the grand master of the Teutonic Knights is appointed duke of Prussia
1525: Karl V/Carlos I takes Milan from the French
1526: Ferdinand I Habsburg is elected king of western Hungary, Bohemia and Slovakia
1527: Karl V's imperial troops sack Rome
1528: the Spanish government issues "asientos" (contracts) to private companies for the trade of African slaves
1528: Cortez brings chocolate from Mexico to Spain
1528: Andrea Doria seizes power in Genoa and switches alliance from France to Spain
1529: the peace of Cambrai assigns Burgundy to France and Italy to Karl V/Carlos I
1530: defeated at Rhodes by the Turks, the Hospitallers move to Malta under the king of Spain
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1530: Youstol Dispage dies
1530: the Medici family is overthrown and Firenze becomes an archduchy of the German empire
1532: a group of Spanish conquistadores led by Francisco Pizarro defeats the Inca army led by Atahuallpa
1534: the first book fair is held in Frankfurt
1536: Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizzaro conquers the Inca empire of Peru
1536: the Swiss physician and alchemist Paracelsus publishes the "Great Surgery Book"
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1530: the Protestan princes of Germany form the Protestant League of Schmalkalden against the Catholic emperor Karl V
1532: the Inca emperor Atahualpa is captured by Pizarro and the Inca empire collapses
1535: emperor Karl V/Carlos I conquers Tunis
1541: the French theologian Johannes Calvinus establishes the first Reformed church (in Geneve)
1547: emperor Karl V/Carlos I defeats Lutheran princes of Germany
1547: Henri II become king of France
1549: Portugal establishes Brazil's capital at Sao Salvador da Baia
1553: prince Filipe of Spain marries Mary Tudor
1555: Karl V grants Lutheranism and Catholicism equal rights in Germany ("Peace of Augsburg")
1556: Karl V abdicates to retire to a Spanish monastery and his empire is divided between his son Felipe II (Spain, southern Italy and the Low Countries) and his brother Ferdinand I (Germany), who already rules over HUngary and Bohemia
1557: Portugal establishes a trading post in Macao (first European settlement in the Far East)
1557: the French crown declares bankruptcy
1558: Ferdinand I is elected emperor
1559: Spain and France sign a peace treaty after 60 years of wars, and Felipe II marries the daughter of Henry II
1561: Felipe II moves the Spanish capital to Madrid
1562: the Wars of Religion begin in France
1564: Spain begins colonizing the Philippines
1568: Williams of Orange leads an uprising against Spain in the "Low Countries" ("Eighty Years' War")
1568: a Muslim uprising leads to the mass expulsion of Muslims (Moriscos) from Spain
1571: in the battle of Lepanto an army formed by the Pope, Spain, Venezia and Genova destroys the Ottoman navy, thus halting Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean
1572: Protestants are massacred in Paris on St Bartholomew's Eve
1578: king Sebastiao of Portugal is defeated by a Muslim army at Alcazarquivir
1579: the northern provinces of the "Low Countries" (Holland) break away from Spanish rule and problaim a Calvinist union ("Union of Utrecht"), while the southern provinces accept the Catholic rule of Felipe II ("Union of Arras")
1580: Felipe II of Spain invades Portugal, thus uniting the Iberian peninsula under the rule of a single king
1580: the Ottomans and Felipe II of Spain sign a treaty dividing spheres of influence in the Mediterranean
1581: the Low Countries unite in the Republic of United Provinces
1582: the Gregorian calendar is adopted in Spain, Italy, France and Portugal
1587: Francis Drake destroys the Spanish fleet at Cadiz
1588: Felipe II of Spain declares war against Elizabeth I of England to protect Spanish possessions in America from English buccaneers, but the Spanish Armada (130 warships, 2400 guns, 26000 sailors) is defeated by the English fleet of Francis Drake
1589: Henri IV of Navarra becomes king of France, the first Bourbon
1589: Spain, which supports the Catholics in the wars of religion, invades France
1597: the Dutch found the colony of Batavia in Java
1598: Henri IV, by converting to Catholicism and granting religious freedom to France, brings an end to the Wars of Religion, and the last Spanish troops are expelled from France
1598: Felipe II dies and is succeeded by Felipe III
1602: the Dutch East India Company is established in Holland
1608: France founds the colony of Quebec in Canada
1608: German states form the Evangelical Union
1609: German states form the Catholic League
1609: the German astronomer Johannes Kepler publishes "The New Astromomy"
1612: Matthias becomes German emperor
1617: Louis XIII becomes king of France
1618: the "Defenestration of Prague" (the Habsburg remove Frederick of the Palatinate and install Matthias' cousing Ferdinand on the throne of Bohemia) begins the "Thirty Years' War" pitting the Habsburg empire and Spain against France, England, Sweden, the first war fought more by artillery than by men
1618: the Brandenburg branch of the Hohenzollern dynasty inherits the duchy of Prussia
1619: the German astronomer Johannes Kepler publishes his third law of planetary motion in the "De Cometis and Harmoniae Mundi"
1621: Felipe III dies and is succeeded by Felipe IV
1621: Holland forms the Dutch West India Company to invade the Spanish and Portuguese colonies
1624: Cardinal Richelieu becomes prime minister of France
1624: Dutch colons colonize north-eastern Brazil
1625: Dutch colons found a trading post in America, Nieuwe Amsterdam (New York)
1635: the Academie Francaise is founded in Paris
1637: the French philosopher Rene` Descartes publishes the "Discours sur la Methode" and founds modern science
1640: Frederick William becomes duke of Prussia and turns Prussia into a European power
1640: Portugal declares its independence from Spain
1641: Holland seizes Malacca from Portugal
1642: Pascal invents a mechanical calculator
1642: Richelieu dies
1643: Louis XIV becomes king of France and Mazarin prime minister
1648: the "Peace of Westphalia" ends the Thirty Years' War, reducing the Germanic empire to a loose confederation of hundreds of independent entities, and replacing Spanish supremacy with French supremacy
1648: after 80 years of war, Spain recognizes the independence of the republic of the United Seven Provinces (Holland) but retains the southern Netherlands (Belgium)
1648: at the end of the Thirty Years' War the population of Europe has declined from 30 to 20 million
1648: cardinal Mazarin founds the Academie Francaise to promote literature
1650: the Jews are expelled from Wien (Vienna)
1650: there are about 2,000 states in Germany
1652: the Dutch found a colony in South Africa as a supply base for the Dutch East India Company (Cape Colony)
1655: Sweden invades Poland-Lithuania ("First Northern War"), causing the death of millions, while Russia, Denmark, and the Empireside with Poland-Lithuania
1655: Britain conquers Jamaica from Spain
1656: Spain declares war against Britain and France joins Britain
1656: the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens invents the pendulum clock
1659: England and France defeat Spain, and Maria Teresa, daughter of Felipe IV, is forced to marry Louis XIV of France (treaty of the Pyrenees)
1660: Mazarin dies and Louis XIV refuses to appoint a new prime minister
1663: "Erbauliche Monaths-Unterredungen" is the first magazine
1664: Britain capture Nieuwe Amsterdam and rename it New York
1664: France forms its East India company
1666: Louis XIV of France founds the Academie Royale des Sciences at Paris
1666: Founding of the French Academy of Science
1667: Louis XIV of France attacks the Netherlands
1673: Leibniz invents a mechanical calculator
1677: William III of Orange, king of the Netherlands, marries Mary, heir to the English throne
1678: France and the Netherlands sign a peace treaty
1681: Pierre Paul Riquet's Canal du Midi links the Atlantic and the Mediterranean through France
1682: the king of France moves from Paris to Versailles
1685: French king Louis XIV expels Protestants from France
1688: British protestants send for William III of Orange, who invades England and deposes James II ("Glorious Revolution")
1689: France invades Germany and starts the Eight-year War (England, Netherlands, Austria, Spain and Savoy ally with Germany)
1691: the Habsburg empire acquires Transylvania from the Ottomans
1697: the treaty of Ryswick ends the Eight-year war (no winner)
1699: the Ottomans lose Hungary to the Habsburgs ("Treaty of Carlowitz")
1700: Carlos II dies and his nephew Felipe V, a Bourbon, becomes king of Spain, thus ending the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs
1700: Gottfried Leibniz founds the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences
1701: Frederick William I, son of Frederick William, succeeds to his father and Brandenburg is renamed the Kingdom of Prussia
1702: king William III forms an alliance between England, the Netherlands and Austria against Spain and France ("War of the Spanish Succession") to defend the archduke Karl of Austria's claim of the Spanish throne against king Felipe V of Spain
1704: England captures Gibraltar from Spain
1706: Austria captures Milano from Spain
1712: the first public synagogue in inaugurated in Berlin
1713: Britain and France sign a peace treaty ("Treaty of Utrecht") that hands most of Canada to Britain and leaves Britain as the dominant force in north America, while Spain surrenders the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium), Milan and southern Italy to Austria (Napoli) and Piedmont (Sicily), and Gibraltar to Britain, and Felipe V (a Bourbon) is recognized as king of Spain
1715: Louis XIV dies and is succeeded by Louis XV
1718: Spain invades southern Italy
1720: the Quadruple Alliance (Britain, France, Austria and Savoy) defeats Spain
1724: the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the mercury thermometer
1734: Carlos, son of Spain's king Felipe V, a Bourbon, conquers Napoli and Sicily from Austria and founds the independent Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
1736: the last Medici dies and Tuscany is inherited by Austria's Franz I Hasburg
1740: Frederick II "the Great" succeeds to the throne of Prussia
1740: Karl VI dies and Maria Theresa succeeds at the Habsburg throne, but her succession is not recognized by Prussia
1741: Elizabeta becomes czarina
1745: Franz I Hasburg of Austria becomes German emperor
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1750: there are about 300 states in Germany
1755: Pascal Paoli leads an insurrection in Corsica against France and proclaims a republic
1756: Friederich II of Prussia invades Saxony, starting the Seven Years' War, pitting France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, Sweden and Spain against Prussia and Britain (the war spreads to India and North America)
1759: Britain seizes Quebec from France
1761: Rousseau publishes the "Contrat Social"
1762: Elizabeta dies and Russia switches alliance, joining Prussia
1763: the treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years' War assigning Louisiana to Spain, all of Canada to Britain (British North America) and Silesia to Prussia
1769: France defeats Pascal Paoli's Corsican republic
1770: Austro-French alliance via the wedding of the future Louis XVI with Marie-Antoinette of Austria (end of the age-old Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry)
1772: Prussia annexes Polish Prussia, thus linking all its possessions in Germany
1774: Louis XVI becomes king of France
1777: banker Jacques Necker is appointed finance minister of France
1778: Austrian physician Anton Mesmer performs hypnosis in Paris
1781: Jacques Necker resigns after balancing the budget of France
1781: the "Patriot" movement in the Netherlands demands democracy from William V of Orange, married to the daughter of the Prussian king
1783: Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier debut a hot air balloon at Annonay in France
1783: Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier and Francois d'Arlandes become the first men to fly (in a Montgolfier)
1786: Friedrich II "the Great" of Prussia dies and is succeeded by Friedrich Wilhelm II
1787: Prussia invades the Netherlands to put down the insurrections of the "Patriots"
1788: as the financial situation of France gets desperate, Jacques Necker is appointed again finance minister
1789: the third estate of the Estates-General assumes the title of the French National Assembly (june 17)
1789: the king fires Necker (july 11)
1789: a popular uprising in Paris starts the French Revolution by storming the Bastille prison (july 14)
1789: the National Assembly issues the "Declaration Of The Rights of Man and Citizen" which guarantees the rights of liberty, equality, security, and property (august 27)
1790: the French National Assembly issues the "Declaration of Peace" to the world (march 22)
1790: the French National Assembly declares church lands to be public property (july 12)
1790: the French Academy invents the "metric" system, a "meter" being one ten millionth the distance from the Equator to the North Pole along the meridian of Paris
1790: French vessels export 40,000 African slaves to the island of St Domingue
1791: the French king Louis XVI tries to escape but is captured (june 20)
1791: the French king Louis XVI ratifies the constitution that abolished the aristocracy and grant voting rights to all non-Jewish male citizens (sep 13)
1791: the French National Assembly dissolves (sep 30) and the Legislative Assembly takes its place (mainly middle class)
1792: France declares war on Austria (april 20) and Prussia and Spain enter the conflict on Austria's side
1792: the guillotine is first used in an execution (april 25)
1792: the French National Convention abolishes the monarchy (september 21)
1792: about 1,000 people are executed in French in the sole month of september (mainly at the Abbaye prison)
1793: French king Louis XVI and queen Marie Antoinette are beheaded (january 21)
1793: mass executions of Girondists in France (october 31)
1794: peak of Robespierre's terror in France (march-june, 17,000 people executed of which 85% commoners)
1794: Robespierre is overthrown and the Reign of Terror ends (july)
1795: France signs peace with Prussia and Spain
1795: a new French constitution established a Directory (august 22)
1795: the metric system is adopted in France
1795: Napoleon invades the republic of The United Seven Provinces (Holland)
1797: Napoleon defeats the Austrian army and conquers northern Italy
1797: France and Austria sign the treaty of Campoformio that ends their war, and Belgium is assigned to France
1797: Frederick William III succeeds to the throne of Prussia
1798: Napoleon defeats the Mamelukes of Egypt at the battle of the Pyramids
1798: admiral Horatio Nelson defeats the French navy at Aboukir Bay in Egypt
1799: Napoleon assumes power in France
1800: Napoleon defeats Austria in Italy
1800: Paris' population is 550,000
1800: the metric system is officially adopted by France
1803: Britain declares war on Napoleon
1804: Karageorge leads an uprising that frees Beograde from the Ottoman Empire
1804: Haiti declares independence from France, the second colony after the USA to become independent in America
1805: the "Third Coalition" is formed by Britain, Austria, Russia and Sweden to fight Napoleon
1805: Horace Nelson destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar
1805: Napoleon defeats the Austrian army at the battle of Ulm and conquers Wien (Vienna)
1805: Napoleon defeats Russians and Austrians at the battle of Austerlitz
1806: Napoleon defeats the Prussian army at the battle of Jena and conquers Berlin
1806: the principalities of southern Germany form the Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund), a protectorate of France, German emperor Franz II abdicates and the Holy Roman Empire is dissolved
1808: Napoleon's France occupies Spain and Portugal, triggering independence movements in Latin America
1808: Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, de facto deposes the Bourbon monarchy and is named king of Spain, defended by France and opposed by Britain that instead recognizes Ferdinand VII ("War of Independence")
1809: Napoleon destroys the Cluny abbey
1810: the Berlin University is founded
1811: Venezuela, led by Simon Bolivar, proclaims its independence from Spain
1812: Argentina proclaims its independence from Spain
1812: Napoleon invades Russia and conquers Moscow, but is soon expelled
1812: Jose de San Martin leads the independence movement in Hispanic America
1812: Spain proclaims a republican constitution
1813: the kingdom of Nederlanden (Netherlands) under king William VI of Orange declares its independence from France, with capital in Amsterdam
1813: Ferdinand VII is restored king of Spain by British intervention and abrogates the constitution
1814: Paris falls to the "Third Coalition" and Napoleon abdicates and goes into exile
1814: Britain purchases the Cape Colony in South Africa from Holland
1814: Paraguay proclaims its independence from Argentina
1815: the Congress of Wien (Vienna) restores Europe as it was before Napoleon and recognizes the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) of thirty-nine monarchical states headed by Austria, which is ruled by chancellor Klemens von Metternich
1815: the Congress of Wien mandates a union of the Netherlands and Belgium
1815: Napoleon returns to France ("The Hundred Days")
1815: Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo
1818: Chile proclaims its independence from Spain
1818: Baron Karl von Drais de Sauerbrun patents "draisine" (early bicycle)
1819: Colombia proclaims its independence from Spain
1820: Ferdinand VII is forced by an insurrection to restore the constitution
1821: Napoleon dies in exile
1821: Mexico proclaims its independence from Spain
1821: Peru proclaims its independence from Spain
1822: Brazil proclaims its independence from Portugal
1823: Ferdinand VII is restored king of Spain by the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia, France) and abrogates the constitution again
1824: Charles X becomes king of France
1824: Bolivar definitely crushes the Spanish army
1825: Bolivia proclaims its independence from Argentina
1825: Le Figaro is founded in France
1828: Uruguay proclaims its independence from Argentina
1830: Belgium declares its independence from the Netherlands
1830: Louis Philippe becomes king of France
1834: France annexes Algeria
1835: French politician Alexis Tocqueville publishes "Democracy in America"
1839: Louis Daguerre invents the "daguerrotype", a precursor of the photographic camera
1840: Frederick William III of Prussia dies
1846: Alois Vaucansson invents the pistol
1847: Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto
1847: Werner Von Siemens founds a company to exploit the telegraph
1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, is elected president of France
1848: France abolishes slavery
1848: universal male suffrage is instituted in France
1848: Karl Marx publishes the "Communist Manifesto"
1851: Louis Napoleon proclaims himself emperor Napoleon III of France
1851: the German Confederation is formed by a number of German states
1852: Antonio Francisco Silva Porto explores Angola
1852: Henri Giffard flies the first dirigible
1853: In the Crimean war Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire fight Russia
1858: France invades Vietnam for the first time
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1859: The Dutch cede East Timor to Portugal
1860: Spain invades Morocco
1861: William I succeeds to the throne of Prussia
1862: Prussian king Wilhelm I appoints Otto von Bismarck as chancellor
1863: Cambodia becomes a protectorate of France
1863: the Red Cross is founded of the Swiss philanthropist Jean Henri Dunant
1864: all the major powers agree at the Geneva convention on rules for the treatment of prisoners of war
1864: Pasteur discovers the existence of micro-organisms
1864: Karl Marx creates the First International in London, a coalition of socialist parties from all over the world
1866: Prussia declares war to Austria ("Seven Weeks' War") and expels Austria from the German Confederation
1866: the first practical dynamo is developed by Siemens
1867: Bismark creates the North German Confederation under Prussian control
1867: Habsburg emperor Franz Josef declares the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary
1868: the first Cro-Magnon men are discovered in a cave in France
1870: Bismark provokes (and wins) the Franco-Prussian War against Napoleon III and obtains the alliance of the southern German states (Baden, Wurttemberg, Bavaria)
1870: the empire is dissolved and a republic (the "third republic") is proclaimed in France, led by president Adolphe Thiers
1871: Bismark unites the northern and southern German states under Prussia, Prussian king Wilhelm I is proclaimed German emperor, a constitution creates a parliament (Reichstag), and universal male suffrage is introduced
1871: the socialists of Paris establish a "commune", but the French government soon retakes Paris (20,000 communards are killed)
1872: France pays an indemnity and German troops leave France
1873: baron Friedrich von Harbou of Prussia invents the dirigible
1873: the German stock market crashes
1875: a republican constitution is approved in France
1878: the Congress of Berlin, chaired by Bismark, limits Russian naval expansion, reduces the size of Bulgaria, hands Cyprus to Britain and Bosnia to Austria, and grants Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania independence
1878: electricity is used in Paris to light up streets at night
1879: German engineer Werner Siemens demonstrates the first electric locomotive
1879: Germany and Austro-Hungarian empire sign a treaty of alliance
1881: the Chat Noir cabaret opens in Paris
1881: Siemens demonstrates the first electric tram system
1882: Germany and Italy sign a treaty of alliance
1883: Vietnam and Laos become French colonies
1885: Portuguese explorers cross Africa from Angola to Mozambique
1885: an international conference at Berlin awards Congo to the king of Belgium, Mozambique and Angola to Portugal, Namibia and Tanzania to Germany, Somalia to Italy, most of western Africa to France, and Egypt, Sudan, Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana to Britain
1885: German engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach invent the motorcycle
1886: German engineer Karl Benz builds a gasoline-powered car
1886: Edouard Drumont's book "Jewish France" begins the era of modern anti-Semitism
1887: Heinrich Herz discovers radio waves
1887: Heinrich Hertz invents the radar
1888: kaiser Wilhelm II becomes king of Germany and launches the expansionistic "weltpolitik" and a militarization of Germany, proclaiming the coming of the "German century"
1889: Paris holds the universal exposition and inaugurates the Eiffel Tower
1889: Germany enacts the first pension plan in the world
1889: socialist parties from all over the world unite in the Second International during a convention in Paris
1890: Bismark loses the election and resigns
1890: AEG develops the AC motor and generator (first power plants) and alternating current makes it easy to transmit electricity over long distances
1891: Bicycle manufacturer Armand Peugeot builds the first French car
1892: Rudolf Diesel invents the internal combustion engine
1893: German engineer Wilhelm Maybach invents the carburetor
1894: Alfred Dreyfus is arrested for high treason, the most famous victim of anti-semitism in France
1894: French president Marie-Francois Sadi-Carnot is assassinated by an anarchist
1895: Auguste and Louis Lumiere hold the "Cinematographe", the first public film show, at the "Salon du Grand Cafe'" (28 December 1895) in Paris
1895: the German scientist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovers X rays
1896: the French philanthropist Pierre Decoubertin revives the Olympic Games
1896: the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity
1897: German chemist Felix Hoffmann invents aspirin
1897: anarchists assassinate the empress Elizabeth of Austria and the Spanish prime minister Antonio Canovas
1897: "La Fronde" is the first ever feminist newspaper
1898: the US defeats Spain and gains Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, while Cuba becomes independent but de facto a USA protectorate
1898: German concern Siemens founds the Deutsche Grammophon record company
1900: Sigmund Freud publishes the "Interpretation of Dreams"
1900: Max Planck invents Quantum Theory
1903: Panama proclaims its independence from Colombia
1903: the first Tour de France of cyclism
1904: Phan Boi Chau founds the Vietnamese Reformation Society and leads protests against the French
1904: German troops massacre 65,000 members of the Herero tribe in Namibia
1904: German general Lothar von Trotha issues an order of extermination for the Hereros of South-west Africa (60,000 die of starvation or are killed)
1905: Einstein publishes the "Special Theory of Relativity"
1905: count Alfred von Schlieffen submits a plan for a German preemptive strike via Belgium against France
1905: Germany supports Morocco's claim to independence from France
1907: Britain, France and Russia create the "Triple Entente" against Prussia's expansionism under Wilhelm II
1908: the first "zeppelin", created by Ferdinand von Zeppelin, lands in a Germany city
1908: Britain and Germany engage in a "naval race"
1908: Austria annexes Bosnia and Serbia threatens war
1908: the Swiss textile engineer Jacques Brandenberger invents cellophane
1910: a popular uprising forces the Portuguese king Manuel II to abdicate and Portugal becomes a republic
1912: Britain and France sign a naval treaty to fend off the threat of the German navy
1914: Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne, is assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia, by a Serbian nationalist
1914: World War I breaks out in the Balkans, pitting Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Serbia, USA and Japan against Austria, Germany and Turkey
1916: the Romenian poet Tristan Tzara founds "Dada", a nihilistic artistic movement in Zurich who exhibit at the "Cabaret Voltaire"
1916: Dada performs at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich
1917: the engine manufacturer Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW) is founded
1918: World War I ends with the defeat of Germany (which has to cede several regions to France and Poland, and all the African colonies) and Austria (which has to cede regions to Italy and grant independence to Yugoslavia)
1918: the Bauhaus opens in Weimar
1918: universal female suffrage in Germany
1918: an epiudemics of influenza kills 20 million people worldwide
1919: European socialists split into "Communists" and "Social Democrats"
1919: Rosa Luxemburg and others are killed during a communist revolt in Berlin
1920: The nazist party is founded in Germany
1920: Spanish prime minister Eduardo Dato is assassinated by anarchists
1922: the Armenian mystic Georges Gurdjieff settles near Paris
1922: the cost of a newspaper in Germany rises from 0.30 marks (1921) to 70 million marks (1922)
1922: Germany and Russia sign the Rapallo Treaty
1922: Germany's foreign minister Walter Rathenau, the highest-placed Jew in the country, is assassinated by German nationalists
1923: Cardinal Soldevila of Saragossa is assassinated by anarchists
1923: Miguel Primo de Rivera installs a dictatorship in Spain
1923: hyper-inflation is rampant in Germany, where the mark goes down from 2000 DM for $1 to 4.2 trillion DM to $1
1923: French troops intervene in Germa-controller Ruhr
1923: a coup by the Nazist party fails in Germany
1924: Louis DeBroglie discovers that matter is both particles and waves
1925: Hitler publishes "Mein Kampf"
1925: Paul von Hindenburg becomes president of Germany
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1926: Daimler, Maybach and Benz merge their car manufacturing companies into Daimler-Benz (Mercedes)
1926: Walter Gropius opens the new Bauhaus in Dessau
1927: Werner Heisenberg discovers the uncertainty principle
1928: Achmad Sukarno founds the Nationalist Party with the mission to gain independence for Indonesia from Holland
1928: following an increase in votes, the socialists join the government of Germany
1929: Stocks crash around the world
1929: unemployment in Germany hits 1 million
1930: Vietnamese intellectual Ho Chi Minh founds the Indochinese Communist Party and organizes anti-French riots in Vietnam
1930: Britain, Japan, France, Italy and the USA sign the London Naval Treaty, an agreement to reduce naval warfare
1930: unemployment in Germany is 3 million
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1930: the first World Cup of football is held in Uruguay
1931: Miguel Primo de Rivera resigns and Alfonso XIII abdicates, turning Spain into a republic
1931: Kurt Godel publishes its incompleteness theorem
1932: Antonio Salazar becomes prime minister of Portugal and turns Portugal into a dictatorship
1932: Albert Lebrun becomes president of France
1932: Germany's National Socialist Party wins 14 million votes in the July elections and obtains 230 of the 600 seats in the German parliament
1932: unemployment in Germany is 6 million
1932: Six million people are unemployed in Germany
1932: the Nazist party wins 37% of the votes and becomes the largest party in Germany
1933: Hitler, leader of the Nazist party, is appointed chancellor of Germany, suspends civil liberties and promotes anti-Jewish activism
1933: students of the University of Berlin burn thousands of books by Jewish authors
1934: the luxurious gigantic ocean liner "Normandie" travels from Le Havre to New York
1935: Mussolini invades Ethiopia
1936: Heinrich Focke flies the first helicopter
1936: Hitler and Mussolini form the "Axis"
1936: Spanish civil war between socialists and nationalists
1938: Germany annexes Austria
1938: German scientists split the uranium atom
1938: synagogues and Jewish shops are destroyed by Nazist mobs in Germany ("Kristallnacht")
1939: Francisco Franco becomes dictator of Spain after a civil war that kills 600,000 people
1939: Germany occupies Czechoslovakia
1939: Mussolini invades Albania
1939: Stalin and Hitler sign a non-aggression pact including the partition of Poland
1939: World War II begins with the invasion of Poland by Germany
1940: Germany invades Denmark, Norway, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Romania and begins bombing Britain
1940: Swiss-born Protestant theologian Roger Schutz starts the Taize movement in France, a monastic order focused on meditation and prayer
1940: French national hero Henri Petain is appointed prime minister and negotiates the creation of an independent French republic with capital in Vichy, that allies with Hitler
1940: Italy, Germany and Japan sign the pact of the "axis"
1941: Hitler exterminates 100,00 mentally ill and elderly people in Germany
1941: Konrad Zuse designs the Z3, the first programmable computer
1941: Germany invades Yugoslavia, Greece, and the Soviet Union
1941: Germany declares war to the USA
1941: the Birkenau camp is inaugurated for the mass extermination of Jews, Gypsies, Poles and Russians
1942: Jews are exterminated in gas chambers in German extermination camps
1942: Hitler envisions a "final solution" for the Jews and extermination camps are set up ("Holocaust")
1942: the Auschwitz and Treblinka extermination camps begin operating
1942: the first missile enters outer space, a German V2 designed by Wernher von Braun (october 1942)
1944: Germany occupies Hungary
1944: Charles De Gaulle, the leader of the resistance, returns to France
1945: the Soviet Union enters Berlin, Hitler commits suicide and Germany surrenders
1945: At the Yalta conference the Soviet Union, Britain and the USA partition Europe in spheres of influence
1945: Germany and Berlin are divided in four sectors, soon to be come "western" and "easter" (Russian) sectors
1945: several thousand Algerians are killed during pro-independence riots in Constantine
1945: the United Nations Organization is founded in New York
1946: France attacks the Viet Minh at Haiphong killing 6,000 civilians
1946: George Marshall envisions a plan to promote the economic recovery of European democracies
1948: Curt Herzstark invents the first pocket calculator, the "Curta"
1949: NATO, a military alliance, is formed by the western European countries and the USA
1949: Holland recognises Indonesian independence
1950: France has 150,000 troops in Vietnam
1950: France uses napalm against the Viet Mihn at Tien Yen
1950: the first World Championship for drivers ("Formula One") is held, the first race being the British grand prix on the Silverstone circuit
1952: Britain becomes a nuclear power
1953: the USA obtains air and naval bases in Spain and the Vatican signs a concordat with Spain, two events that legitimize Francos' dictatorship
1953: Charles DeGaulle retires
1954: after the Viet Minh defeat France at Dieu Bieu Phu (thousands die on both sides), the Viet Minh and France sign a peace treaty dividing Vietnam into North and South, and scheduling a general election for 1956 (76,000 French soldiers have died)
1954: European countries found CERN (Centre Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire) to halt the exodus of nuclear physicists to the USA
1954: France is defeated by Vietnam at the battle of Dien Bien Phu and withdraws
1954: Algerian exiles in Egypt create the Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) and start the civil war against France
1955: the Soviet Union withdraws from Austria, which becomes a neutral country
1955: After the Algerian FNL (National Front of Liberation) kills French civilians at Philippeville, France retaliates by killing more than 1,273 civilians
1956: Algerian freedom fighter Ben Bella is arrested by French police
1956: Real Madrid of Spain wins the first Champion's League of football
1956: France withdraws from Morocco and Tunisia
1956: French prime minister Guy Mollet confers special powers to general Jacques Massu fighting in Algeria
1957: Italy, Germany, France and others found the European Community
1957: French general Jacques Massu wins the "battle of Algiers" using nazi-style methods against the Algerian rebels
1958: Charles De Gaulle returns to power in France after the constitution is changed to grant him strong powers over the parties
1958: Yves St Laurent changes the way French women dress
1959: DeGaulle grants Algeria the right to vote on independence
1959: the ETA is founded by Basque separatists to conduct terrorism against Spain
1959: Charles de Gaulle launches France's atomic energy programme
1960: Congo declares its independence from Belgium
1960: France becomes a nuclear power
1961: the Soviet Union builds a wall to isolate West Berlin and discourage people from fleeing Eastern Germany
1961: India annexes the Portuguese colonies (Goa)
1961: former French officers led by general Raoul Salan form the Organisation de l'Armee Secrete (OAS) to fight Arabs in Algeria, killing 12,000 Arab civilians in one year
1962: French nationalists opposed to Algeria's independence unleash a terrorist campaign under the moniker OAS (Organisation de l'Armee Secrete)
1962: After the deaths of about 100,000 French and about 1,000,000 Algerians, Algeria is declared independent
1966: France withdraws from NATO
1967: Rudi Dutschke leads student riots in West Berlin
1967: military coup in Greece
1968: Student riots in France escalate into a national uprising, soon followed by similar protests in Germany and Italy
1969: Willy Brandt forms a social-democratic government in West Germany and inaugurates "ostpolitik" (opening to the East)
1969: following student demonstrations, DeGaulle resigns and Georges Pompidou is elected president of France
1971: a club for European corporate leaders meets in the Swiss mountain village of Davos
1972: Volkswagen's "Beetle" becomes the most produced car of all times
1974: a military coup introduces democracy in Portugal
1974: first free election in Greece
1974: European countries found the European Space Agency (ESA)
1974: Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx wins his fifth Tour and his fifth Giro, an all-time record
1974: Pompidou dies and Giscard d'Estaing wins the elections against socialist Francois Mitterrand, appointing Jacques Chirac prime minister
1974: France, under prime minister Chirac, sells nuclear technology to both Iran and Iraq
1975: Portugal grants independence to its African colonies (Mozambique, Angola, etc)
1975: the Baader-Meinhof terrorizes Germany
1975: Surinam declares its independence from Holland
1975: Spanish dictator Franco dies and king Juan Carlos appoints Adolfo Suarez as prime minister of Spain
1975: Portugal grants East Timor independence
1976: the supersonic airplane Concorde, built by France and Britain, begins service
1976: the G6 is created to bring the leaders of the biggest national economies together (USA, Canada, Britain, Germany, Japan, France)
1977: an execution is carried out in France, the last execution in Western Europe
1977: Jacques Chirac becomes mayor of Paris
1978: Spain adopts a parliamentary monarchy and joins NATO
1978: France attacks the Polisario to defend Mauritania's president
1979: the Green Party is founded in Germany with an environmentalist platform
1980: 118 people are killed in ETA terrorist attacks in Spain
1981: Francois Mitterrand, a socialist, is elected president of France
1981: France abolishes the death penalty
1981: the TGV (high-speed train) begins operations in France
1981: Youstol Dispage dies
1982: after a failed military coup, the socialist party wins the elections in Spain and Felipe Gonzalez becomes prime minister
1982: Hezbollah suicide commandos organized by Iran blow up the US and French barracks in Lebanon killing 241 marines and 58 French soldiers
1984: Helmut Kohl is elected chancellor of Germany
1986: Spain joins the European Community
1986: Jacques Chirac becomes prime minister of France for the second time
1986: Syria sponsors a string of bombs in Paris
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1989: Berlin holds the first "Love Parade", a festival of electronic dance music (one million people)
1989: The Berlin Wall is destroyed by millions of ecstatic Germans, thus leading to the reunification of east and west Germany
1989: terrorists blow up a French UTA airliner over Niger, probably on behalf of Libya
1990: East and West Germany are reunited under chancellor Kohl
1991: the world-wide web (invented by Tim Berners-Lee in Geneve) debuts on the Internet
1992: record of refugees in Western Europe (400.000 in Germany alone), mainly from Yugoslavia, Eastern Europe, Africa.
1994: Sweden, Austria and Finland join the European Union
1994: Algerian terrorists of the GIA hijack an Air France plane and try to crash it into the Tour Eiffel
1995: Jacques Chirac is elected president of France
1995: Algerian terrorists of the GIA kill eight people in the Paris metro
1995: despite worldwide protests, France conducts a nuclear test at the Polynesian atoll of Muroroa
1995: the leader of Spain's opposition party Jose Maria Aznar survives an ETA car bombing
1996: Marc Dutroux is arrested in Belgium for the kidnapping, raping and murder of six girls
1996: Jose Maria Aznar becomes prime minister
1997: most countries of the world agree on reducing the level of greenhouse-gas emissions in order to avoid climate changes such as global warming, (Kyoto Protocol)
1987: Jeanne Calment dies at 122, setting the new world record of longevity
1987: the Montreal Protocol limits the use of substances that damage the ozone layer
1989: the government of Paris mayor Jacques Chirac awards contracts to companies that pay bribes
1989: Dutch businessman Frans van Anraat is arrested in Italy at the request of the USA for selling thousands of tons of chemicals that Saddam Hussein's Iraq used to build chemical weapons
1998: socialdemocrat leader Gerard Schroeder becomes chancellor of Germany and Joschka Fischer's Green Party joins the government coalition
1998: 38 million vehicles sold worldwide (4.5 million workers and revenues of 1.5 billion dollars)
1998: the German Peoples Union (DVU) wins 12.9% in state elections in Saxony Anhalt, the best result for a neo-fascist party since Hitler
1999: NATO bombs Serbia to stop repression against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo
1999: a common currency, the euro, is introduced in some European countries (one euro is worth $1.1591)
2000: the supersonic jet Concorde crashes in Paris
2001: Pia Kjaersgaard's right-wing party wins 12% of the votes in Denmark's elections
2001: Thierry Desmarest of Total creates the world's fourth largest oil group after acquiring Petrofina in 1999 and Elf in 2001
2001: there are ten million Muslims in western Europe (four million in France, three million in Germany, 1.5 million in Britain, more than one million in Italy)
2002: euro coins and notes are distributed to the citizens of the eurozone
2002: France sends "peacekeeping" troops to Ivory Coast
2002: Jacques Chirac is reelected president of France but right-wing leader Jean-Marie le Pen wins 17% of the votes
2002: Holland's right-wing party List Pim Fortuyn wins 26 seats out of 150 in elections following the murder of its leader Pim Fortuyn
2002: Joerg Haider's right-wing party wins 10% of the votes in Austrian elections
2002: two right-wing parties, Alleanza Nazionale and Lega Nord, win about 16% of votes in Italian elections
2003: Spain, Holland, Denmark and Italy support the USA/UK invasion of Iraq, while France and Germany strongly oppose it
2003: Airbus passes Boeing as the world's largest civilians aircraft manufacturer
2003: Germany enters the second recession in 3 years and unemployment reaches 11%
2003: both France and British retire the supersonic jet Concorde
2003: millions of western Europeans march in the streets to protest USA plans to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq
2003: France and Germany oppose the USA and British invasion of Iraq, the first such major split in the Atlantic alliance (Britain, Italy, Holland, Poland, Spain and others send troops to support the USA in Iraq)
2003: a heatwave kills 15,000 people in France, at least 6,000 in Spain, 7,000 in Germany, 2,000 in Britain and 20,000 in Italy
2003: a mosque is built in Spain for the first time since the reconquista of 1492
2003: the Muslim population of Europe is 25 million (except Russia), of which 6 million in France and 3 million in Germany
2004: the World Health Organization estimates that 1.3 million people are killed every year in car accidents
2004: Michael Schumaker wins his seventh Formula One championship, a world record
2004: the French government bans Islamic scarves from schools
2004: 202 people are killed by synchronized bombs planted on trains near Madrid, Spain, by Islamic terrorists (led by Sarhane ben Abdelmajid Fakhet), and, two days later, their target, prime minister Jose Maria Aznar, is defeated by Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero, the first time that Islamic terrorists decide the outcome of a European election
2004: Gerhard Schroeder resigns from leader of the SPD
2004: ten new members (mostly former communist countries) join the European Union, greatly expanding its eastern border, and increasing its population to 455 million in 25 states, its area to 738,573 sq km, and its gross domestic product to 9.613 trillion euros (more than 10 trillion dollars)
2004: in France, serial killer Michel Fourniret is arrested
2004: director Theo Van Gogh, an outspoken critic of Islam, is killed by a Muslim extremist in Holland
2004: France detroys the entire airforce of Ivory Coast, guilty of accidentally killing a few of its soldiers
2005: France inaugurates the tallest bridge in the world, the Millau bridge over the river Tarn
2005: the Kyoto protocol (to reduce the level of greenhouse-gas emissions in order to avoid climate changes such as global warming) is adopted by 141 countries of the world but not the USA, China, India and Australia
TM, ®, Copyright © 2003 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved.
2005: the unemployment rate in Germany reaches its highest level since 1933, with Schroeder's approval rating plunging to about 29%
2005: the unemployment rate in France rises to its highest level since 1999 and Chirac's approval rating plummets to 24%
2005: the new European Union constitution is not ratified because the French reject it in a referendum
2005: Germany is the country that has the lowest opinion of the USA in the West (Pew Center poll)
2005: The European Union, the United States, Russia, Japan, South Korea and China partner in the Iter (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) project based in southern France to develop a nuclear fusion reactor
2005: Lance Armstrong, an American, wins a seventh tour de France, an all-time record
2005: the price of oil jumps from $35 at the beginning of the year to an all-time record of $67 a barrel
2005: Angela Merkel, a woman born in Eastern Germany, becomes chancellor of Germany
2005: Chirac replaces prime minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin with Dominique de Villepin
2005: riots in Paris' poor Muslim suburbs force the Villepin government to introduce new laws to fight poverty and unemployment
2005: Dutch businessman Frans van Anraat is jailed for selling thousands of tons of chemicals that Saddam Hussein's Iraq used to build chemical weapons
2006: massive strikes and marches force the Villepin government to withdraw a labor law meant to fight unemployment
2006: anti-Islamic activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali is forced to resign from the parliament of the Netherlands and moves to the USA
2006: A political party with a paedophile agenda is founded in Holland
2006: Al Qaeda strikes an alliance with the Algerian terrorists of the Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le Combat (GSPC) and declares war against France
2006: the price of oil reaches an all-time record of $83 a barrel
2007: Nicolas Sarkozy of a center-right party wins presidential elections in France against the Socialists, replacing Jacques Chirac after his 12 years in power
2007: crash of the stock markets worldwide, triggered by the crisis of USA sub-prime mortgage lenders
2007: strikes and riots in Paris as Sarkozy begins his term as president
jan 2008: the USA stock market collapses, triggering similar collapses around the world
jan 2008: a rogue trader, Jerome Kerviel, loses five billion euros of Societe Generale
mar 2008: the price of gold hits $1,000 for the first time ever and oil passes $110 a barrel, while the dollar sets another all-time low against the euro (1.56) and the Eurozone overtakes the USA as the world's largest economy
mar 2008: Switzerland's Large Hadron Collider, the world's most powerful particle accelerator, is inaugurated
may 2008: protests spread around Europe following a 300% increase in diesel over a five-year period
2007: Spain's per-capita income passes Italy's
june 2008: oil prices pass $140 a barrel
july 2008: European inflation hits a 16 year High

Frankish Leaders


Merovee (?)
Pharamond (409 - 427)
Clodian VI (426 - 448)
Merovee (448 - 458)
Childeric I (458 - 496)

Merovingian Kings


Clovis I (456 - 511)
Clotaire I (511 - 560)
Chilperic I (561 - 584)
Clotaire II (584 - 629)
Dagobert I (630 - 638)
Clovis II (633 - 656)
Dagobert II (656)
Childebert (656 - 661)
Childeric II (662 - 675)
Clovis III (675 - 676)
Theuderich III (673 - 691)
Clovis IV (691 - 695)
Childebert III (695 - 711)
Dagobert III (711 - 715)
Chilperich II (715 - 721)
Chlothar IV (717 - 720)
Theuderich IV (721 - 737)

Carolingian Mayors


Pepin I (628 - 639)
Pepin II (687 - 714)
Charles Martel (714 - 741)
Carloman (741 - 747)
Pepin III (741 - 751)

Carolingian Emperors


Pepin III (751 - 768)
Charlemagne/ Karl der Groáe (768 - 814)
Louis/Ludwig I (814 - 840)
Lothar I (840 - 855)
Louis/ Ludwig II (855 - 875)
Charles/ Karl II (875 - 876)
Louis/ Ludwig III (876 - 882)
Charles/ Karl III (882 - 888)

Western Carolingian Emperors


Charles III (888 - 922)
Rudolf / Raoul (923 - 936)
Louis IV (936 - 954)
Lothair V (954 - 986)
Louis V (986 - 987)

Capetian Kings of France


Hugh Capet (987 - 996)
Robert II the Pious (996 - 1031)
Henri I (1031 - 1060)
Philippe I (1060 - 1108)
Louis VI (1108 - 1137)
Louis VII (1137 - 1180)
Philippe II (1180 - 1223)
Louis VIII (1223 - 1226)
Louis IX (1226 - 1270)
Philippe III (1270 - 1285)
Philippe IV (1285 - 1314)
Louis X (1314 - 1316)
John I (1316)
Philippe V (1316 - 1322)
Charles IV (1322 - 1328)

Valois Kings of France


Philippe VI (1328 - 1350)
John II (1350 - 1364)
Charles V (1364 - 1380)
Charles VI (1380 - 1422)
Charles VII (1422 - 1461)
Louis XI (1461 - 1483)
Charles VIII (1483 - 1498)
Louis XII (1498 - 1515)
Francis I (1515 - 1547)
Henri II (1547 - 1559)
Francis II (1559 - 1560)
Charles IX (1560 - 1574)
Henri III (1574 - 1589)

Bourbon Kings of France


Henri IV (1589 - 1610)
Louis XIII (1610 - 1643)
Dauphine (1643 - 1661)
Louis XIV (1661 - 1715)
Louis XV (1715 - 1774)
Louis XVI (1774 - 1792)
Robespierre (1792 - 1794)
Napoleon I (1803 - 1814)
Louis XVIII (1814 - 1824)
Charles X (1824 - 1830)
Louis Philippe (1830 - 1848)

Modern France


2nd Republic (1848 - 1852)
Napoleon III (1852 - 1871)
3rd Republic (1871 - 1940)
Vichy Republic (1940 - 1944)
Charles DeGaulle (1944 - 1969)
except 1953-58
Georges Pompidou (1969 - 1974)
Giscard d'Estaing (1974 - 1981)
Francois Mitterrand (1981 - 1995)
Jacques Chirac (1995-2007)
Nicolas Sarkozy (2007-)

Eastern Emperors


Berengar (888 - 891)
Wido (891 - 894)
Lambert (894 - 896)
Arnulf (896 - 899)
Louis III (899 - 905)
Berengar I (905 - 922)
Rudolf II (922 - 933)
Hugh (933 - 947)
Lothair II (947 - 950)
Berengar II (950 - 961)

German Kings


Arnulf von K„rnten (887-899)
Ludwig das Kind (900-911)
Konrad I (911-918)

Ottonen


Heinrich I (919-936)
Otto I (936-973)
Otto II (973-983)
Otto III (983-1002)
Heinrich II (1002-1024)

Salier


Konrad II (1024-1039)
Heinrich III (1039-1056)
Heinrich IV (1056-1106)
Heinrich V (1106-1125)
Lothar III (1125-1137)

Hohenstaufen


Konrad III (1138-1152)
Friedrich I, Barbarossa (1152-1190)
Heinrich VI (1190-1197)
Otto IV von Braunschweig (1198-1218)
Philip von Schwaben (1198-1208)
Friedrich II (1212-1250)
Konrad IV (1250-1254)

Interregnum


Wilhelm von Holland (1247-1256)
Alfons X von Kastilien (1257-1274)
Richard von Cornwall (1257-1272)

Habsburger


Rudolf I von Habsburg (1273-1291)
Adolf von Nassau (1292-1298)
Albrecht I von Habsburg (1298-1308)
Heinrich VII von Luxemburg (1308-1313)
Ludwig IV (1314-1347)
Friedrich (1314-1330)
Karl IV von Luxemburg (1346-1378)
Wenzel von Luxemburg (1378-1400)
Ruprecht (1400-1410)
Jobst von Mahren (1410-1411)
Sigismund von Luxemburg (1410-1437)
Albrecht II (1438-1439)
Friedrich III (1440-1493)
Maximilian I (1493-1519)
Karl V (1519-1556)
Ferdinand I (1556-1564)
Maximilian II (1564-1576)
Rudolf II (1576-1612)
Matthias (1612-1619)
Ferdinand II (1619-1637)
Ferdinand III (1637-1657)
Leopold I (1658-1705)
Joseph I (1705-1711)
Karl VI (1711-1740)
Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
Karl VII Albrecht (1742-1745)
Franz I Stephan (1745-1765)
Joseph II (1765-1790)
Leopold II (1790-1792)
Franz II (1792-1806)
Napoleon I (1806)

Hohenzollern


Wilhelm I (1871-1888)
Friedrich III (1888)
Wilhelm II (1888-1918)

Modern Germany


Otto von Bismarck (1871-1890)
Georg Leo Graf von Caprivi (1890-1894)
Chlodwig Fuerst (1894-1900)
Bernhard Fuerst (1900-1909)
Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg (1909-1917)
Friedrich Ebert (1919-1925)
Paul von Hindenburg (1925-1934)
Adolf Hitler (1934-1945)
Konrad Adenauer (1949-63)
Ludwig Erhard (1963-66)
Kurt Kiesinger (1966-69)
Willy Brandt (1969-74)
Helmut Schmidt (1974-82)
Helmut Kohl (1984-98)
Gerhard Schroeder (1998-2005)
Angela Merkel (2005)

Kings of Castilla


Fernando I el Grande (1029-1065)
Sancho II el fuerte (1065-1072)
Alfonso VI el valiente (1072-1109)
Urraca Alfonsez (1109-1126)
Alfonso VII (1126-1157)
Sancho III Alfonsez el deseado (1157-1158)
Fernando II (Leon, 1157-1188)
Alfonso VIII Sanchez el noble (1158-1214)
Alfonso IX (Leon, 1188-1230)
Enrique I Alfonsez (1214-1217)
Berenguela Alfonsez la grande (1217)
Fernando III Alfonsez (1217-1252)
Alfonso X el sabio (1252-1284)
Sancho IV Alfonsez el bravo (1284-1295)
Fernando IV Sanchez el emplazado (1295-1312)
Alfonso XI Fern ndez el justiciero (1312-1350)
Pedro I Alfonsez el cruel (1350-1369)
Enrique II (1369-1379)
Juan I (1379-1390)
Enrique III el doliente (1390-1406)
Juan II (1406-1454)
Enrique IV el impotente (1454-1474)
Isabel I la catolica (1474-1504)

Kings of Aragonia


Ramiro I (1035-1063)
Sancho Ramirez (1063-1094)
Pedro I (1094-1134)
Alfonso I (1104-1134)
Ramiro II el Monje (1134-1137)
Ramon Berenguer IV (1137-1162)
Alfonso II Ramon el Casto (1162-1196)
Pedro II el Catolico (1196-1213)
Jaime I el Conquistador (1213-1276)
Pedro III el Grande (1276-1285)
Alfonso III el Liberal (1285-1291)
Jaime II el Justo (1291-1327)
Alfonso IV el Benigno (1327-1336)
Pedro IV el Ceremonioso (1336-1387)
Juan I (1387-1395)
Martin el Humano (1395-1410)
Interregno (1410-1412)
Fernando I de Antequera (1412-1416)
Alfonso V el Magnanimo (1416-1458)
Juan II (1458-1479)
Fernando II el Cat¢lico (1479-1516)

Kings of Pamplona y Navarra


Inigo Arista (820-851)
Garcia I Iniguez (852-870)
Fortun Garces el Tuerto (870-905)
Sancho Garces I el Grande (905-925)
Garcia Sanchez I (925-970)
Sancho Garces II Abarca (970-994)
Garc¡a Sanchez II (994-1005)
Sancho III el Mayor (1005-1035)
Garcia IV Ram¡rez (1134-1150)
Sancho VI el Sabio (1150-1194)
Sancho VII el Fuerte (1194-1234)
Teobaldo II el Trovador (1234-1253)
Teobaldo III el Joven (1253-1270)
Enrique I el Gordo (1270-1274)
Juana I (1274-1305)
Luis de Hutin (1305-1316)
Felipe el Largo (1316-1322)
Carlos I (1322-1328)
Juana II (1328-1349)
Carlos II el Malo (1349-1387)
Carlos III el Noble (1387-1425)
Blanca (1425-1441)
Juan II (1441-1464)
Leonor (1464-1479)
Francisco de Foix (1479-1483)
Catalina (1483-1512)

Kings of Spain


Carlos I (1516-1556)
Felipe II (1556-1598)
Felipe III (1598-1621)
Felipe IV (1621-1665)
Carlos II (1665-1700)
Felipe V (1701-1724)
Luis I (1724)
Felipe V (1724-1746)
Ferdinand VI (1746-1759)
Carlos III (1759-1788)
Carlos IV (1788-1808)
Ferdinand VII (1808)
Jose` (1808-1813)
Ferdinand VII (1813-1833)
Isabella II (1833-1868)
Amadeo (1870-1873)
Alfonso XII (1874-1885)
Alfonso XIII (1886-1931)

Modern Spain


Francisco Franco (1939-1975)
Adolfo Suarez (1975-1981)
Felipe Gonzalez (1983-1995)
Jose Maria Aznar (1996-2004)
Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero (2004)
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(Copyright © 1999 Piero Scaruffi)